The harbinger of the eruption of Vesuvius was
strong earthquake, February 5, 62 AD. e.
The disaster caused great damage to the city,
almost all buildings in one way or another
degrees were damaged. Most of the buildings
has been renovated, but some
the damage remained until the destruction of the city.
The eruption of Vesuvius began in the afternoon
August 24, 79 and lasted about a day, about which
some testify
surviving manuscripts.
It led to the destruction of three cities -
Pompeii, Herculaneum, Stabiae and several
small villages and villas.
everything has been preserved as it was before
eruptions. Under multimeter
streets, houses with
complete situation, human remains and
animals that did not have time to escape.
The force of the eruption was such that the ash from
it even reached Egypt and Syria. Vesuvius and the city wall of Pompeii in 2010 Of the 20,000 inhabitants of Pompeii in the buildings and on the streets
about 2,000 people died. Majority
residents left the city before the disaster, however
the remains of the dead are found outside
cities. Since 1863 excavations
led
Giuseppe Fiorelli.
In 1870 he discovered
what's in place of people's bodies
and animals,
buried under a layer
volcanic ash,
voids have formed.
Filling these voids
plaster, succeeded
reconstruct
death poses
victims of the eruption. The inside walls of Roman houses were covered with frescoes,
studied mostly on the example of Pompeii,
Herculaneum and Stabius. INLAY or
structural (150-80 years
BC e.) -
characterized by rustication (masonry or
wall cladding with stones and rough,
convex front surface) and
painting imitating cladding
marble slabs. Originated under
influenced by Hellenistic art, often
there are reproductions of Greek
paintings ARCHITECTURAL STYLE (80 BC -
14 year) - on the smooth walls depicted
columns, cornices, architectural
compositions, landscapes that created the illusion
volume and space extending into the distance. IN
figures of people appear in the paintings,
complex multi-figures are created
compositions, often based on mythological
stories. Architectural style of interior painting. In this type of painting, elements such as
cornices and friezes with vine shoots,
are not created from plaster, but are drawn out, with
skillful dexterity creating illusions from color and
shadows. That during the first
style was realized in volume and relief.
According to the first style, innovation in
trompe l'oeil effect (this is a drawing technique using
which is implemented as an “optical illusion”, on the walls
windows, doors or atrium are drawn to create
the impression is that the room is larger than it is)
implemented on the wall, in which in place
plinths, smooth pedestals were drawn with
false columns, niches and doors behind
which the prospect opened up. EGYPTIZED or
ornamental (from 14 AD) -
transition to flat ornaments, in
framed by which were placed
paintings,
usually with a pastoral theme. FANTASTIC or perspective ornamental (from 62 AD) -
fantastic landscapes appear,
the depicted architecture resembles
theatrical scenery, ceasing
obey the laws of physics. Pictures with
become images of people
most of the buildings in Pompeii are more dynamic
decorated with paintings of this style. Frescoes of the Villa of Mysteries The villa was named after those who received it
frescoes are widely known in
one of the rooms south of the atrium, where
depicted in the most
common version,
initiation into the Dionysian
mysteries,
on the other - a wedding ceremony. The beginning of the sacrament. A painting depicting a theatrical action. Portrait of a poetess. Portrait of newlyweds. Into an ornamental decoration with a large
still lifes are introduced with skill. Dressing room with vaults decorated with Flavian frescoes
(cupids, bacchantes, trophies), marble seats and niches for
storage of clothes. Stabian terms. An integral part of the decoration of a rich Roman house
there were mosaic floors - from simple floors,
in which the pattern was laid out with white pebbles on
cement-crushed stone base,
to the finest mosaics with complex multi-figure
compositions
(For example,
famous
mosaic,
depicting the battle of Alexander the Great with
Persian king Darius).
There are mosaics with drawings of cubes in perspective,
mosaics illusorily reproducing fruit peelings on
smooth floor, mosaic images of ducks, cats, fish and
etc. mosaic depicting the battle of Alexander
Macedonian with Darius III. At the entrance to the house there is a mosaic with the image
dogs and with the inscription “beware of dogs”. Fayum portrait. Fayum portraits - created in
funerary encaustic technique
portraits in Roman Egypt of the 1st-3rd centuries. Yours
got its name from the place of the first major
finds in the Fayum oasis in 1887 by the British
expedition led by Flinders Petrie.
They are an element of local funerary culture modified under Greco-Roman influence.
traditions: portrait replaces traditional
funeral mask on a mummy. Are situated in
collections of many museums around the world, including
including the British Museum, the Louvre and the Museum
Subway in New York In total, more than 900 have been found to date.
portraits.
The time of creation of these portraits of the 1st-3rd centuries AD.
- the time when Egypt was conquered by the Romans.
Several centuries earlier, Egypt was ruled by
Greek Ptolemaic dynasty - descendants
one of the comrades of Alexander the Great.
The ruling elite, of course, were also Greeks.
Therefore, it is not surprising that simultaneously with
traditional Egyptian art
there was also the art of the Greek conquerors
and synthesized Hellenistic art,
absorbing both traditions. This affected all aspects of cultural and
religious life of the ancient Egyptians
the specified period, including
funeral rites.
Examples of funeral rituals have come down to us
images made in more
ancient, actually Egyptian tradition
(relief funeral masks), and in
newer - Greco-Roman
(funerary portraits).
coincides with Christian teaching).
One way or another, the Fayum portrait is an image
eternal, in a certain sense – immortal
personality.
It is precisely this circumstance that makes the Fayum
portrait with icon. "Portrait of an Elderly
men"
(late 1st century AD) Features of the composition
The composition of a Fayum portrait usually has
chest-to-chest construction (waist-length images
are less common). Character heads like
usually rotated at three quarters. Direct
There are few frontal images.
The gaze is directed either directly or above
"spectator". The light source that forms
black-and-white facial pattern, most often
"located" above and slightly to the left of
depicted – right (from the viewer) side
faces are usually obscured, regardless of
which side the character is facing, shaded
the side of the nose is conveyed by a wide dark
line. "Portrait
young
Roman",
beginning of the 3rd century AD Faces do not reflect emotions. The eyes are often
wide open. The background is conventional, usually -
plain light or gold.
Stylistic feature of the majority
Fayum portraits are asymmetrical.
The left side of the face is often different from the right
(eyes, eyebrows, corners of lips, ears, etc. can be
different sizes, located at different levels,
shown from different angles). This technique is not
characteristic of Hellenistic art,
in it one can see a new trend in painting.
In essence, this is the same attempt to convey volume
subject and its perspective distortion, but more
dynamic and expressive.
Fresco (from Italian fresche - fresh), affresco (Italian affresco) - painting on wet plaster, one of the wall painting techniques, the opposite of “a secco” (dry painting). When dried, the lime contained in the plaster forms a thin transparent calcium film, making the fresco durable. Performed by a fresco artist.
The exact date of the appearance of the frescoes is unknown, but already during the period of the Aegean culture (2nd millennium BC), fresco painting became widespread. This was painting with paints, where glue or casein was used as a binder, and the technique itself was close to “a secco”. The availability of raw materials (lime, sand, colored minerals), the relative simplicity of painting techniques, as well as the durability of the works led to the great popularity of fresco paintings in the ancient world. In Christian art, fresco has become a favorite way of decorating interior and (less commonly) external walls stone temple.
In Ancient Rus', the technique of wall painting was mainly mixed - painting with water paints on wet plaster was supplemented with tempera-glue technique (background, upper registrations) with various binders (egg, animal and plant glues).
In Europe during the Renaissance, mastery of the art of wall painting became one of the most important measures of an artist's skill. It was then that fresco painting reached its highest development in Italy.
According to Vitruvius, in Ancient Greece lime plaster was used in several layers with a surface smoothed to a shine to decorate the external and internal walls of buildings. From the Greeks, the Romans adopted the custom of painting walls using plaster; later, wall painting using freshly laid mortar, which was called in udo (“in the wet”), appeared. Lime plaster was applied in seven layers, with sand added to the lower ones and marble chips to the upper ones. To prevent cracks from appearing, a small amount of water was introduced into the solutions, and the layers were compacted during application. The strength of the coating was achieved by adding milk, crushed brick, pumice and, in rare cases, hemp and straw. Thus, pumice was found in the wall paintings of Pompeii, not only in the plaster, but also in the paint layers, where it was used as whitewash. Applying plaster in several layers made it possible to slow down the drying process and, therefore, increase the time of work on a damp surface. The choice of binders for paints was dictated by the type of pigments used. Animal glue, pure lime and its mixtures with casein, egg white, and glue were used as a binder. To preserve the painting, Vitruvius advised that after the fresco had dried, cover its surface with a mixture of oil and wax, followed by heating and blotting the melted wax.
State educational institution
higher professional education
"St. Petersburg State University economics and finance"
"Ancient languages and cultures"
Abstract on the topic:
"Ancient painting, mosaic, frescoes, vase painting"
Prepared by: 1st year student
group L-101
Krivskaya Elena
Checked by: Semenikhina Maria Vasilievna
Saint Petersburg
What is painting
Fayum portraits
Chiaroscuro
Linear perspective
Aerial perspective
Antique fresco
Mosaic in antiquity
Vase painting
Bibliography
What is painting
Painting- a type of fine art, works of which are created using paints applied to any hard surface. In works of art created by painting, color and design, chiaroscuro, expressiveness of strokes, texture and composition are used, which makes it possible to reproduce on a plane the colorful richness of the world, the volume of objects, their qualitative, material originality, spatial depth and light-air environment. Painting can convey a state of staticity and a feeling of temporary development, peace and emotional and spiritual richness, the transient immediacy of a situation, the effect of movement, etc.; In painting, a detailed narrative and a complex plot are possible. This allows painting not only to visually embody visible phenomena of the real world, to show a broad picture of people’s lives, but also to strive to reveal the essence of historical processes, the inner world of man, and to express abstract ideas. Due to its extensive ideological and artistic capabilities, painting is an important means of artistic reflection and interpretation of reality; it has significant social content and various ideological functions.
Antiquity painting
In ancient times, painting, which acted in artistic unity with architecture and sculpture and decorated temples, homes, tombs and other structures, served not only religious, but also secular purposes. New, specific possibilities of painting have opened up, providing a wide-ranging representation of reality. In antiquity, the principles of chiaroscuro and unique variants of linear and aerial perspective arose. Along with mythological ones, everyday and historical scenes, landscapes, portraits, and still lifes were created. The antique fresco (on multi-layer plaster with an admixture of marble dust in the upper layers) had a shiny, glossy surface. In Ancient Greece, almost no surviving easel painting arose (on boards, less often on canvas), mainly using the encaustic technique (see Wax painting); Fayum portraits give some idea of ancient easel painting.
Fayum portraits
These are the best surviving examples of ancient painting. They depict the faces of the inhabitants of ancient Egypt during the Hellenistic and Roman periods in the 1st-3rd centuries AD.
After the conquest of Egypt by Alexander the Great, the reign of the pharaohs ended. During the reign of the Ptolemaic dynasty - the heirs of Alexander's empire, significant changes took place in art and architecture. Funerary portraiture, a unique art form of its time, flourished in Hellenistic Egypt. Stylistically related to the traditions of Greco-Roman painting, but created for typically Egyptian needs, replacing the funerary masks of mummies, Fayum portraits are strikingly realistic images of men and women of all ages.
Since it was in antiquity that the principles of chiaroscuro, linear and aerial perspective originated, it is probably worth exploring this concept.
Chiaroscuro
With the help of chiaroscuro you can make plants more expressive and voluminous. The surface of any object reflects the light rays falling on it and leaves an unlit area on the ground, called a shadow. On that part of the surface where light rays do not reach, its own shadow is formed, and from the border of its own shadow a penumbra falls towards the light. Reflexes can occur within the shadows themselves - light reflected from other objects. Reflexes are clearly visible on shiny objects, which additionally contain glare - sparkling spots. All these features of light and shadow depend on the location of the object relative to the light source. Color gradations in chiaroscuro are determined by the intensity of illumination, the color of the object itself and the density of the shadow.
With frontal lighting, when the light source is in front of the subject, the transitions from light to shadow are almost invisible and the composition looks expressionless. With side lighting, chiaroscuro becomes more pronounced and prominent. When the illuminated object is between the light source and the observer, backlight appears. At this moment, the sun highlights the texture of the object, emphasizes the silhouette, and its color becomes brighter.
Linear perspective
Its principles:
· figures and objects that we know are of the same size seem smaller to us the further they are from us;
· parallel lines directed from the foreground into the distance tend to converge at one point located at infinity; these lines in such projections in the photograph are reduced in size, appearing shorter than they actually are.
Aerial perspective
It is characterized by the disappearance of clarity and clarity of the outlines of objects as they move away from the observer’s eyes. In this case, the background is characterized by a decrease in color saturation (the color loses its brightness, the chiaroscuro contrasts are softened), thus the depth appears lighter than the foreground. The first studies of the patterns of aerial perspective are found in Leonardo da Vinci. “Things at a distance,” he wrote, “seem ambiguous and doubtful to you; do them with the same vagueness, otherwise they will appear at the same distance in your picture... do not limit things that are distant from the eye, for at a distance not only these boundaries, but also parts of bodies are imperceptible.” The great artist noted that the distance of an object from the observer’s eye is associated with a change in the color of the object. Therefore, to convey the depth of space in a painting, the closest objects must be depicted by the artist in their own colors, the distant ones acquire a bluish tint, “... and the very last objects visible in it (in the air - L.D.), such as, for example, mountains due to a large amount of air between your eye and the mountain appears blue, almost the color of air...”
All these possibilities of painting, the existence of which people sometimes do not even realize, were first created precisely in the era of antiquity.
Antique fresco
The term "fresco" comes from the Italian expression "a fresco" - writing on damp, still fresh limestone soil with paints (pigments) diluted with water or paint.
Of course, the concept of fresco painting existed before the era of antiquity. For example, during the period of the Aegean culture (which was the 2nd millennium BC), fresco painting was already widely used. But still, each era usually brings something of its own to art. So it is with the ancient fresco.
According to Vitruvius, in Ancient Greece lime plaster was used in several layers with a surface smoothed to a shine to decorate the external and internal walls of buildings. From the Greeks, the Romans adopted the custom of painting walls using plaster; later, wall painting using freshly laid mortar, which was called in udo (“in the wet”), appeared. Lime plaster was applied in seven layers, with sand added to the lower ones and marble chips to the upper ones. To prevent cracks from appearing, a small amount of water was introduced into the solutions, and the layers were compacted during application. The strength of the coating was achieved by adding milk, crushed brick, pumice and, in rare cases, hemp and straw. Thus, pumice was found in the wall paintings of Pompeii, not only in the plaster, but also in the paint layers, where it was used as whitewash. Applying plaster in several layers made it possible to slow down the drying process and, consequently, increase the time of work on a damp surface. The choice of binders for paints was dictated by the type of pigments used. Animal glue, pure lime and its mixtures with casein, egg white, and glue were used as a binder. To preserve the painting, Vitruvius advised that after the fresco had dried, cover its surface with a mixture of oil and wax, followed by heating and blotting the melted wax.
The tradition of using picturesque wall “tricks” goes back to ancient Greece and Rome. A fail-safe remedy when it is necessary to visually expand the boundaries of a room is a fresco, which allows you to create the desired interior without breaking the walls or demolishing the roof.
The invention of the technique of painting walls in the form of trompe loel or "fresco trompe l'oeil" is historically attributed to the ancient Roman architect Severus. The ancient Romans, according to Petronius, loved home orgies. These tireless hedonists hosted them in the interiors of their luxurious villas - tablinums, vestibules, tricliniums and patios. But it must be said that both the hosts and their numerous guests suffered because it was impossible to seat everyone present and then make them comfortable. And the architect North, don’t be a fool, resorted to visual mystifications. The frescoes depicted make-believe, but looking like real, hyper-realistic views of landscapes. They were perceived more than naturally, which misled everyone who contemplated them. It seemed that the distant distances drawn were nothing more than a continuation of the room. And it does not end with a wall, but rushes into virtual spaces. If not one, but several walls of the interior were landscaped, there was a feeling of immense space, giving the opportunity to at least mentally wander around.
Mosaic in antiquity
Moza? ika(fr. mosa que, Italian mosaico from lat. (opus) musivum - (work) dedicated to the muses) - decorative, applied and monumental art of various genres, works of which involve the formation of an image by arranging, setting and fixing on the surface (usually on a plane) multi-colored stones, smalt, ceramic tiles and others materials.
The first antique mosaics made of untreated pebbles were found in Corinth and dated back to the end. 5th century BC e. These are contour images of people, animals, mythological creatures, decorated with geometric and floral patterns, usually made in white on black, stylistically close to red-figure vase painting. Similar examples of the 4th century. BC e. also found in Olynthos, Sikyon, and Eretria. An important step towards realism was made in the mosaics of Pella (late 4th century BC)
The heyday of ancient mosaics occurred in the Hellenistic era, when the technique of pebbling appeared and colored glass became available, which made it possible to achieve picturesque realism in images and use an almost unlimited range of colors. The most ancient monument where the technique of pinning or tessellation was used are considered to be the mosaics of the Sicilian city of Morgantina (3rd century BC).
In Ancient Rome, mosaics were used to cover the floors and walls of villas, palaces and baths. Roman mosaics were made from small cubes of very dense glass - smalt, but the use of small stones and pebbles was not uncommon.
In ancient times, mosaics were widespread. This was due to the fact that this type of decorative art was relatively inexpensive.
At that time, mosaic was the most durable type of finishing of floors of walls, paths, facades, because there was an abundance of small stones, pebbles, crushed stone from crumbling rocks, that is, material for mosaics, compared to others finishing materials. Ceramics were just beginning to develop at this time, and making tiles from huge monolithic stones was very labor-intensive and expensive. This type of finishing, such as Apennine and Greek wood, was not very reliable and durable. The technology of constructing megalithic buildings is already a thing of the past. That is, mosaic at that time became the most convenient and widespread method of finishing.
The very first and, accordingly, the most primitive mosaic technique originated in the Middle East. It was called opus barbaricum (opus barbaricum). This technique received significant improvement in Greece. This mosaic was made from sea or river pebbles, but was not too bright and expressive. They are found in the sanctuaries and temples of Ancient Greece, starting from the 7th - 6th centuries BC. (sanctuary of Artemis Orthia in Sparta, temple of Athena Pronoia in Delphi). They were also found in Spain, Sicily (mosaics from the Carthaginian Motia, in the Ai Khanum palace in Afghanistan) and in the capital of Macedonia (mosaics of the 4th-3rd centuries BC, which are examples of monochrome painting, such as “Dionysus on a leopard ", "Deer Hunting", "Lion Hunting").
As time passed, the pictorial possibilities of the barbaricum technique had practically exhausted themselves. Mosaic artists switched to using crushed minerals. This led to the invention of new techniques. The need for new techniques was also caused by the emergence of new aesthetic principles, including the need to maintain local color and definite design without the mandatory use of lead or terracotta color separating and drawing plates, characteristic of barbaricums. The technique of typesetting mosaic from fragmented pieces of stone was named opus tesselatum (opus tesselatum) after the original element - a cubic stone - tessera. At first, tesserae appeared in a mosaic set quite randomly and mainly in pebble pavings, then, as they mastered the technology and technique of working with tessellated mosaics and realized their pictorial advantages, fragments or individual sections of the mosaic began to be collected from tesserae.
Over time, artists stop using rounded pebble stones in their mosaics and improve and complicate the design itself. The seams between the mosaic elements become smaller and the surface of the pattern is polished. The opus tesselatum technique is the mosaic that we are accustomed to seeing and perceiving as a classic of Roman mosaic. The use of colored smalts helped make the mosaic more vibrant and picturesque. The discovery of glass technologies enriched mosaic artists with new possibilities for using color and light highlights.
The development of new technologies led to the creation of a new technique - opus vermiculatum (opus vermiculatum). This technique is close to tessellated mosaic and is undoubtedly a derivative of it. The principle of set, common to both techniques, was retained, but the set was made from elements that were almost an order of magnitude smaller, and the possibilities for conveying pictorial effects are incomparable with any other type of mosaic art. The labor intensity of the vermiculatum technique inevitably imposes certain restrictions on the size of the work, but this technique was used to create artistic mosaic paintings and mosaic illustrations, which became masterpieces of the monumental and decorative art of Ancient Rome.
The most memorable works that were made using this technique can be considered such works of mosaic art as “Pigeons on a Cup” from Hadrian’s Villa in Tibur, “Hunting Scene” in Piazza della Vittoria in Panorma (Palermo) in Sicily, “Tiger Rider” (end of the 2nd century BC), “Inhabitants of the Deep Sea” from the House of Faun in Pompeii, two mosaics by Dioscurus of Samos from the Villa of Cicero in Pompeii - “Breakfast of Women” and “Musicians”.
The technique of opus vermiculatum (opus vermiculatum) is more painstaking and expensive than opus tesselatum (opus tesselatum), so the size of the work, as a rule, was no more than one or two square meters. But still, some of the mosaic artists managed to create works exceeding these dimensions. At least two such mosaics were found: “The Battle of Alexander the Great with the Persian King Darius” from the House of Faun in Pompeii, (5.12 * 2.71 m) and “Nile Landscape” in the Sanctuary of Fortuna Primigenia in Palestrina ( 5.85 * 4.31 m.), end of the 2nd - beginning of the 1st century BC.
Around the 3rd century BC. another paving technique was born - opus sectile (opus sectile. This most prestigious and expensive mosaic set decorated the most majestic premises, both church and secular. This technique is a mosaic set of thin plates of natural stone cut into a special shape (they were later made from other materials), the main advantage of which was the manifestation of the internal structure of the material and a significant expansion of the color palette. “Opus sectile” is a distant ancestor of what we today call Florentine mosaic.
Antique mosaic. Classical Greece
Decorating floors with pebbles was also common in Archaic Greece (8th-6th centuries BC): pebble floors were preserved in the sanctuary of Artemis Orthia in Sparta and the temple of Athena Pronoia in Delphi (7th-6th centuries BC) However, it was simply paving without ornamentation.
The earliest Greek mosaic with a pattern was found in Corinth and belongs to the classical era - the end of the 5th century. BC e.
The question of the connection between Phrygian mosaics and Greek ones is debatable, however, scientists are inclined to conclude that the development of Greek mosaic art was independent.
A mosaic panel from Corinth depicts a wheel framed by three rows of borders: triangles, meanders and waves - ornamental motifs that have become a kind of graphic symbols of Greek culture. In the corners of the square in which the images are inscribed are the figures of a centaur chasing a leopard and a donkey.
The figures are depicted on the panel in outline in profile, without any attempt to give them volume, in two colors (white on black).
The coloristic principle of “white on black” was formed under the influence of the art of vase painting, in which it was at this time that red-figure painting replaced black-figure painting. The iconography of many plot scenes was also borrowed from the vase painting.
Greek mosaics 5th century. also preserved in Olynthos, the Peloponnese, Attica, and Euboea.
If in the archaic era pebble decoration was widespread mainly in temple architecture, then in the late classical era mosaics are found mainly in private interiors. This speaks to the desire of wealthy citizens for elegance and comfort in their homes.
And at this time (8th century BC) in Greece - the era of Homer, the legendary poet-aed, who is credited with the authorship of the Iliad and Odyssey. 776 BC e. - the date of the first Olympic Games begins the history of Greece and antiquity in general.
The expression “Gordian knot” is widely known - this is the name for any confusing, intractable issue. According to legend, King Gordius, after whom the city is named, tied his cart in the temple of Zeus with such a knot that no one could untangle it. The oracle predicted that the person who could do this would conquer the whole world.
The solution was found centuries later - in 334 BC. e. the city surrendered to Alexander's troops, he entered the temple and with one movement of his sword cut the knot.
Although the images are still schematic, the material does not cost anything, and in itself is simple: even colored pebbles are rarely used, not to mention marble, other rare stones, colored glass and gold, which will appear centuries later, but mosaic is already establishing itself in its the role of an elite method of decoration, which has remained unsurpassed to this day.
It is found only in a few houses, and in the house itself only the most important premises from the point of view of presentation and positioning of the owner of the house in society - androns - are decorated with mosaics.
Typically, mosaic panels were arranged according to the following pattern: like a carpet on the floor of the hallway adjacent to the andron, then a small panel-carpet in the door and, finally, a panel in the center of the room.
Since the panel had to have equal visibility for all guests located around it, it usually had a centric composition.
Among the pictorial motifs, stylized plant images of palmettes, acanthus leaves, ivy curls, lotus flowers, and angel trumpets are used.
The figures include images of a lion, griffin, cheetah, eagle, and human figures.
Some motifs of Greek mosaic panels are borrowed from the textile art of the East.
Andron (men's room) - part of the ancient Greek house, intended for men who gathered for symposiums, for conversations and dinners. They were the most beautiful rooms in the house: they were decorated with mosaics, frescoes and statues.
Poking or tessellation
Sources report that during Alexander’s campaign, slabs decorated with mosaics were specially carried for him, with which they lined the floor of his tent during camps.
The tetrahedral pinning of the edges of the mosaic pebbles, as well as the individual pinning of each pebble in place, ensures a tighter fit between them and more thorough detailing - all this plays in favor of the realism and picturesqueness of the image.
The cutting or tessellation of pebbles began in the 3rd century, and mixed techniques were used for a long time: pebbles and processed stone. The process of developing a new technology is nonlinear and sporadic: it is impossible to say with certainty either the time or place of the “invention” of tessellated mosaics: this is a time of experimentation.
At the moment, the earliest monuments where the tessellation technique was used in its pure form without the use of pebble techniques are considered to be mosaic panels of the small Sicilian city of Morgantina.
In all mosaics, not only the same cubic tesserae are used, but also tesserae pinned specifically for specific areas of the pattern.
The most famous of them is the “Ganymede Mosaic”, depicting the moment of the abduction of Ganymede by the eagle of Zeus.
Undoubtedly, here the master is guided by a pictorial model, however, the tesserae used are too large to realistically convey the painting - here tessellation does not yet show all its capabilities.
The center of the highest level artistic industry and the birthplace of many craft techniques was Alexandria, the capital of Ptolemaic Egypt, founded in 332 BC. e., however, there is no reason to assert its primacy in the history of new mosaic technology.
The first mosaic panel where tessellation is used in full force is considered to be the mosaic of the Egyptian city of Tmuis in the Nile Delta.
In the central part of the panel there is a bust-length portrait of a woman in a military suit, with a hairstyle decorated with an element in the shape of a ship’s bow, holding a ship’s flag.
There are two versions interpreting the image on the mosaic: most consider the image to be a personification of the city of Alexandria, some consider it to be a portrait of the real Queen Berenice II. The portrait is framed by a triple border made of smooth, tightly fitting tesserae, measuring from 1 to 0.4 cm2. The size of the tesserae of the portrait itself is even smaller and reaches 0.1 cm2 in some places - this allows you to achieve incredible detail.
The color scheme of the work is also fundamentally new: it is no longer “white on black”, but a portrait in natural colors on a light blue background. Halftones and color transitions are used freely.
Ganymede is the son of the Trojan king Tros and the nymph Callirhoe in Greek mythology. Because of his extraordinary beauty, he was kidnapped by Zeus, who turned into an eagle, and taken to Olympus, where he served as a cupbearer, pouring nectar to the gods at feasts. According to another version, he was ascended to heaven in the form of the zodiac constellation Aquarius. The plot of “The Rape of Ganymede” is one of the most popular in both ancient and European fine arts.
The sample represents the opus vermiculatum technique in its full development: the smallest pieces of stone, arranged as required by the very nature of the image.
One of the centers of mosaic art of the Hellenistic era was Pergamon. Among the many Pergamon masters, one was especially famous and his name has come down to us - Sos. Only a name immortalized by the historiographical tradition in the person of one of the Roman historians - Pliny the Elder - and not a single work, only descriptions.
Sos created not just skillful mosaic panels - he created the most fashionable subjects for panels, which were later picked up by many - among them the so-called. asarotos oikos ("uncleaned place").
Berenice II is the wife of Ptolemy III Euergetes, the third ruler of Hellenistic Egypt. For the sake of her husband’s happy return from a military campaign, she donated her hair to Aphrodite and placed it in the temple of the goddess, from where it mysteriously disappeared. The astronomer Conon of Samos explained this by saying that they were taken to the sky and turned into a constellation called Coma of Berenice.
There is a known copy or interpretation of this mosaic made by the master Heraclitus. It shows with the greatest possible realism... leftovers scattered on the floor after a luxurious dinner: fish skeletons, chicken bones, shells, nuts, remains of grapes and... a mouse already approaching this “wealth”.
However, Sos was not only an author in the spirit of trash-design. From Pliny's text we also know about another unsurvived but famous work by Sos - a dove bending over a water drinking mirror and being reflected in it - a plot that became not just fashionable, but survived antiquity itself for half a millennium: its echoes can be found even in mosaic decoration Mausoleum of Galla Placidia - a masterpiece of early Christian mosaic art of the 5th century. n. e.
As in the case of asarotos oikos, this plot by master Sosa came to be interpreted by another master. In addition, this is one of the earliest examples of the use of tesserae made of smalt - opacified (opaque) glass made in Egypt.
Pergamum is the capital of one of the four Hellenistic kingdoms and one of the economic and cultural centers of the Hellenistic world. Here was the second largest (after Alexandria) library of antiquity. Parchment was also invented here - a writing material made from untanned animal skin, used before the advent of paper.
Vase painting
painting fayum portrait chiaroscuro fresco
Vase painting- ornamental or figurative decorative painting vessels, performed almost exclusively by the ceramic method, that is, with special paints followed by firing.
Antique vase painting - painting of antique ceramic vessels. Antique vase painting reached its peak in the art of Ancient Greece. The vases were covered with black varnish, white, purple, blue, pink, red, yellow and gold.
Vase painting of Ancient Greece
Ancient Greek vase painting is decorative painting of vessels made using ceramic methods, i.e. special paints followed by firing. Covers the period from pre-Greek Minoan culture to Hellenism, that is, starting from 2500 BC. e. and including the last century before the advent of Christianity..
Greek pottery is the most common find in archaeological research of ancient Greece; it can be found throughout the entire area of settlement of the ancient Greeks. In addition to the Greek metropolis, which largely coincided with the territory of modern Greece, it includes: the western coast of Asia Minor, the islands of the Aegean Sea, the island of Crete, partly the island of Cyprus and areas of southern Italy inhabited by Greeks. As an export product, Greek ceramics, and with it ancient Greek vase painting, found their way to Etruria, the Middle East, Egypt and North Africa. Painted Greek pottery is even found in the burials of Celtic nobility.
The first objects of Greek vase painting were found in modern times in Etruscan burials. Therefore, they were originally classified as Etruscan or Italic art. Johann Joachim Winkelmann was the first to declare the Greek origin of the finds, but their Greek origin was finally established only on the basis of the first archaeological finds at the end of the 19th century. in Greece. Since the 19th century Ancient Greek vase painting is an important area of research in classical archaeology.
The ancient Greeks painted all types of pottery used for storage, eating, rituals and holidays. Works of ceramics, decorated with special care, were donated to temples or invested in burials. Ceramic vessels and their fragments that have undergone strong firing and are resistant to environmental influences have been preserved in the tens of thousands, which is why ancient Greek vase painting is indispensable in establishing the age of archaeological finds.
Thanks to the inscriptions on vases, the names of many potters and vase painters have been preserved, dating back to the Archaic period. If the vase is not signed, in order to distinguish between the authors and their works and painting styles, it is customary for art historians to give vase painters “service” names. They reflect either the theme of the painting and its characteristic features, or indicate the place of discovery or storage of the corresponding archaeological objects.
Protogeometric and geometric styles
With the decline of the Mycenaean culture after the Dorian invasion, all the achievements of the previous vase painting were lost. For about a century there has been Submycenaean pottery that is characterized by a complete lack of ornamentation (in rare cases it is decorated with a few simple lines). Around 1050 BC e. Geometric motifs spread throughout Greek art. In the early stages (protogeometric style) before 900 BC. e. ceramic dishes were usually painted with large, strictly geometric patterns. Typical decorations of vases were also circles and semicircles drawn with a compass. The alternation of geometric patterns of patterns was established by different registers of patterns, separated from each other by horizontal lines encircling the vessel. During the heyday of geometry, starting from 900 BC. e., there is a complication of geometric patterns. Complex alternating single and double meanders appear. Stylized images of people, animals and objects are added to them. Chariots and warriors in frieze-like processions occupy the central parts of vases and jugs. Images are increasingly dominated by black, less often red, colors on light background shades. By the end of the 8th century. BC e. This style of painting disappears in Greek ceramics.
Orientalizing period
Since 725 BC. e. Corinth occupies a leading position in the production of ceramics. The initial period, which corresponds to the Orientalizing, or otherwise Proto-Corinthian style, is characterized in vase painting by an increase in figured friezes and mythological images. The position, order, theme and the images themselves were influenced by oriental samples, which were, first of all, characterized by images of griffins, sphinxes and lions. The technique of execution is similar to black-figure vase painting. Consequently, at this time the three-fold firing required for this was already used.
Black-figure vase painting
From the second half of the 7th century. until the beginning of the 5th century. BC e. black-figure vase painting developed into an independent style of decorating ceramics. Human figures began to appear more and more often in the images. Compositional schemes have also undergone changes. The most popular motifs for images on vases are feasts, battles, and mythological scenes telling about the life of Hercules and the Trojan War. As in the Orientalizing period, the silhouettes of the figures are drawn using slip or glossy clay on dried unfired clay. Small details were drawn with a pencil. The neck and bottom of the vessels were decorated with patterns, including ornaments based on climbing plants and palm leaves (so-called palmettes). After firing, the base became red, and the glossy clay turned black. White color first began to be used in Corinth and primarily in order to display the whiteness of the skin of female figures.
Other ceramic production centers, such as Athens, adopted the technique of the Corinthian vase painting style. By 570 BC. e. Athens even surpassed Corinth in the quality of its vases and the scale of production. These Athenian vases were called “Attic black-figure pottery” in art history.
For the first time, pottery masters and vase painters began to proudly sign their works, thanks to which their names were preserved in the history of art. The most famous artist of this period is Exekius. In addition to him, the names of the vase painting masters Pasiada and Chares are widely known. Since 530 BC. e. With the advent of the red-figure style, black-figure vase painting lost its popularity. But also in the 5th century. BC e. The winners of sports competitions at the so-called Panathenaea were awarded Panathenaic amphorae, which were made using the black-figure technique. At the end of the 4th century. BC e. There was even a short period of renaissance of black-figure vase painting in Etruscan vase painting.
Red-figure vase painting
Red-figure vases first appeared around 530 BC. e. It is believed that this technique was first used by the painter Andokidas. In contrast to the already existing distribution of colors for the base and image in black-figure vase painting, they began to paint not the silhouettes of the figures with black, but rather the background, leaving the figures unpainted. The finest details of the images were drawn with individual bristles on unpainted figures. Different slip compositions made it possible to obtain any shade of brown. With the advent of red-figure vase painting, the opposition of two colors began to be played out on bilingual vases, on one side of which the figures were black, and on the other - red.
The red-figure style enriched the vase painting with a large number of mythological subjects; in addition to them, on the red-figure vases there are sketches from Everyday life, female images and interiors of pottery workshops. Realism unprecedented in vase painting was achieved through complex depictions of horse-drawn carriages, architectural structures, and human images in three-quarter view and from the back.
Vasographers began to use signatures more often, although potters' autographs still predominate on vases. The potters left a signature in the form of their name in combination with the ancient Greek verb. ???????? (ep óiesen - he did), and vase painters - ancient Greek. ??????? (égrapsen - he drew). If the vase painter himself made the vessel for painting, then he put both “stamps”. Thanks to the signatures, it was possible to attribute many works of pottery art to specific masters, while at the same time getting an idea of their creative development.
Already in the 5th century. BC e. In lower Italy, famous workshops arose that worked with this style of vase painting and competed with the vase painting workshops in Attica. The red-figure style was copied in other regions, where, however, it did not receive much recognition.
Vase painting on a white background
To paint vases in this style, white paint was used as a base, onto which black, red or multi-colored figures were applied. This vase painting technique was used mainly in the painting of lekythos, aribales and alabastrons.
Vase painting centers
Athens and Corinth in Attica are considered the most significant centers of pottery art - and, accordingly, vase painting - in Greece. Vases from Boeotia and Laconia also became famous.
Thanks to the Greek colonies in lower Italy, their pottery and vase painting spread to this region. Since the 8th century. BC e. Greek ceramics was imitated by Italian craftsmen, perhaps thanks to the Greek craftsmen who settled in Italy. Starting from the 4th century. BC e. Italy develops its own style, different from Greek examples. The vase paintings of lower Italy are distinguished by their size and richness of decoration, in which white and red paint were used in addition to traditional colors.
The vases were painted mainly with motifs from the life of Greek gods and heroes, but there are also everyday scenes. Numerous surviving vases, for example, depict wedding feasts or scenes from the lives of athletes. Often there are erotic scenes on vases. A special form of the Low Italian style of vase painting are considered to be “naisk vases”, which received their name accordingly from the naisk depicted on them and were intended for funeral rituals.
Form
After the clay acquired the required consistency, it was thoroughly kneaded with feet (Herodotus II 36) and divided into pieces. The clay was placed on the potter's wheel and centered so that there was no vibration during rotation. The rotating potter's wheel was known in Greece back in the second millennium BC. e., it is described in the Iliad (XVII 599-601). There are also ancient images where the potter's wheel was set in motion by an apprentice potter sitting on a chair or squatting.
After centering on the potter's wheel, the body of the future vessel was created. If the height of the future vessel exceeded the length of the master’s arm, then it was assembled from several parts. The finished parts were cut from the potter's wheel using a rope, traces of which can be found on the finished vases. The legs and handles of the vessels, as well as applied decorations (for example, relief masks) were sculpted separately and attached to the body using liquid clay. The finished vessels were placed in a dry and dark place for slow drying under natural conditions to avoid cracks. After the clay hardened a little, the vessel was “unscrewed” from the potter’s wheel. Next, the potter cut off the excess clay and formed sharp edges typical of ancient ceramics on the rim and legs of the vessel.
painting
Ceramics were painted before firing. The vessel was first wiped with a damp cloth and then covered with a diluted slip solution or mineral paints, which gave the vase a reddish tint after firing. Vasographers painted vessels directly on the potter's wheel or carefully holding them on their laps. This is evidenced by numerous images on finished vases, as well as those rejected after firing and unfinished products.
Images on vases in geometric, orientalizing and black-figure styles were most likely applied with a brush. During the late geometric period, vase painting used white background paint, which, having chipped off in some places, reveals details that vase painters tried to hide from prying eyes. Notches on the vessels were characteristic of black-figure vase painting, and most likely this technique was borrowed from artisan engravers. For these works, vase painters used a sharp metal style. Even in the era of protogeometrics, vase painters knew about compasses, which they used to mark concentric circles and semicircles on vases. Starting from the Middle Proto-Corinthian period, sketches have been discovered that vase painters applied to painted pottery with a sharp wooden stick or metal tool. These marks disappeared during firing. Vase paintings in the red-figure style were often preceded by sketches. They can be found on some vessels where they show through the final image. An example is the Cleophrades amphora, which depicts a satyr with a spear, which, according to the original plan, should have been dressed in breast armor. Unfinished red-figure images show that vase painters often outlined their sketches with a stripe up to 4 mm wide, which is sometimes visible on finished products. For the contours of the body, a protruding relief line was used, which is clearly visible on the black-figure vessels. Other details were painted with rich black paint or background paint diluted to a brown tint. Finally, the background of the vessel or the front side of the bowl was painted black with a large brush.
Various inscriptions were applied to the vessels: signatures of potters and vase painters, signatures to images and laudatory inscriptions-dedications. Sometimes the price of the product or the manufacturer's mark were carved on the bottom of the vessels.
Bibliography
1.#"justify">2. http://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vase painting of_Ancient_Greece
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In ancient Rome, mosaics were widely used to decorate the interiors of public buildings and private houses. The demand for it was very high, so the quality could vary.
The mosaic was made from natural stone...
Or smalt - colored glass.
Unlike Ancient Egypt, Mesopotamia and other ancient civilizations, in Ancient Rome, as in Ancient Greece, they used the volumetric-spatial principle of image. 
In ancient Roman painting, including mosaics, almost all genres are used.
The most popular were mythological and everyday genres.
Odysseus. Mosaic from the House of Odysseus and Dionysus in Dougga. III century
This mosaic can be classified as both a domestic genre and a group portrait.
Philosophers. Mosaic from the Naples Archaeological Museum.
The historical genre is much less common, but what quality! 
Battle of Isa. Pompeii.
Portraits, especially women's ones, are often idealized. 
Still life is one of the most popular genres. Seafood is especially loved.
II century. Vatican Museum.
Roman artists depicted birds and animals very often.
They are always recognizable and very expressive.
Mosaic from the Naples Archaeological Museum.
Mosaic paintings were often surrounded by a wide ornamental frame.
Mosaic from the British Museum.
Ornamental mosaics themselves were also quite common. The variety of ornaments is amazing.
Characteristic features Splendor of decorative compositions Splendor of decorative compositions Richness of subjects Richness of subjects Variety artistic techniques A variety of artistic techniques Mastering aerial perspective Mastering aerial perspective Detailed image of the human environment Detailed image of the human environment
Characteristic features Immediacy of perception of the surrounding world Immediacy of perception of the surrounding world The desire to show a real person, his inner world and physical beauty The desire to show a real person, his inner world and physical beauty
Portrait of Paccius Proculus and his wife Around the year AD. e. Height 58 cm Fresco Naples.
Christ is a solar deity. Mosaic of the tomb of Julia, discovered under the Cathedral of St. Peter years AD e. Rome
Winter. Mosaic of the composition "Four Seasons" from El Jem, Tunisia, second half of the 4th century AD. e.
Lion's head. Mosaic of a villa near Piazza Armerina, Sicily AD. e.
Creative task Roman culture is in many ways similar to Greek. Can it be called unique and inimitable? Some scientists consider Roman civilization to be imitative and too utilitarian, seeing in it the last stage of a single Greco-Roman, or ancient, civilization. Others claim. That Rome created a unique, original civilization with its own system of values. Roman culture is similar to Greek culture in many ways. Can it be called unique and inimitable? Some scientists consider Roman civilization to be imitative and too utilitarian, seeing in it the last stage of a single Greco-Roman, or ancient, civilization. Others claim. That Rome created a unique, original civilization with its own system of values. What's your opinion? What's your opinion?
